P-adic Analysis
by aoum, Mar 17, 2025, 11:27 PM
An Introduction to p-adic Analysis
1. What is p-adic Analysis?
P-adic analysis is a branch of mathematics that extends the concept of number systems by introducing a new way to measure "distance" between numbers. Instead of using the usual absolute value, p-adic analysis is based on the p-adic norm, where
is a fixed prime number. This approach leads to the construction of the p-adic numbers, denoted by 
, which form the foundation for advanced studies in number theory, algebra, and analysis.
The p-adic numbers were first introduced by Kurt Hensel in 1897 as a way to provide new tools for solving Diophantine equations and understanding congruences.
2. The p-adic Norm and Metric
To define the p-adic numbers, we first need to understand the p-adic absolute value (or norm).
For any nonzero rational number
, express it in the form:
![\[
x = p^n \frac{a}{b},
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/a/d/6/ad616e16ce53ad528ec96b1030f71608450a199d.png)
where
and 
are integers not divisible by the prime , and 
is an integer.
The p-adic norm of is defined as:
![\[
|x|_p = p^{-n}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/6/3/0/6309b3d54077f4c658ede444a76be7c8285a63a7.png)
Additionally:
![\[
|0|_p = 0.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/4/7/c/47c8f890397eef9d84d1b9ecd2bdeb826af58923.png)
This norm satisfies the following properties:
This last property is stronger than the ordinary triangle inequality and gives rise to what is called an ultrametric space.
3. Construction of the p-adic Numbers
Just as the real numbers
are constructed by completing the rational numbers 
with respect to the usual absolute value, the p-adic numbers are constructed by completing using the p-adic norm.
Elements of can be represented as p-adic expansions:
![\[
x = a_{-n} p^{-n} + a_{-n+1} p^{-n+1} + \dots + a_0 + a_1 p + a_2 p^2 + \dots,
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/4/a/5/4a50d691d8187e600b659cb3a3755e6dfc2d01b3.png)
where each coefficient
is an integer between 0 and 
.
For example, in the 3-adic system:
![\[
\frac{5}{4} = 2 + 3 + 3^2 + 3^3 + \dots
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/7/5/d/75d6a9d37a06dea445e43e9ad7a02dd16b42b6a3.png)
4. Differences Between p-adic and Real Numbers
The p-adic numbers are fundamentally different from the real numbers in several ways:
5. Hensel’s Lemma
One of the most important tools in p-adic analysis is Hensel’s Lemma. It is the p-adic analogue of Newton’s method for finding roots of polynomials.
Theorem (Hensel’s Lemma):
Let
be a polynomial with coefficients in 
. Suppose there exists an 
such that:
![\[
f(a) \equiv 0 \mod p \quad \text{and} \quad f'(a) \not\equiv 0 \mod p,
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/2/d/7/2d76706c2fa263d636d19c19d98d99c6e67b1a06.png)
then there exists a unique-adic integer 
such that:
![\[
f(\alpha) = 0 \quad \text{and} \quad \alpha \equiv a \mod p.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/b/6/7/b6745b93733295627eac1162c5d8ea2a3be4b085.png)
Hensel's Lemma is a powerful tool for finding roots of polynomials in.
6. Applications of p-adic Analysis
P-adic analysis has profound implications in many areas of mathematics and theoretical physics:
7. Examples of p-adic Computations
(1) Consider the 5-adic valuation of
:
Factor
, so:
![\[
|75|_5 = 5^{-2} = \frac{1}{25}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/d/e/7/de771c0245c532b0466b77a0a583145bc61df97a.png)
(2) Solving
using Hensel’s Lemma:
Starting with
, Hensel’s Lemma lifts this to a full solution in 
.
8. Generalizations and Further Topics
Beyond basic p-adic numbers, there are several generalizations:
9. Conclusion
P-adic analysis opens a fascinating world of mathematics where our usual notions of distance and size are redefined. This field has deep theoretical implications, especially in number theory, and continues to be a rich source of unsolved problems and new ideas.
References
1. What is p-adic Analysis?
P-adic analysis is a branch of mathematics that extends the concept of number systems by introducing a new way to measure "distance" between numbers. Instead of using the usual absolute value, p-adic analysis is based on the p-adic norm, where
is a fixed prime number. This approach leads to the construction of the p-adic numbers, denoted by 
, which form the foundation for advanced studies in number theory, algebra, and analysis.The p-adic numbers were first introduced by Kurt Hensel in 1897 as a way to provide new tools for solving Diophantine equations and understanding congruences.
2. The p-adic Norm and Metric
To define the p-adic numbers, we first need to understand the p-adic absolute value (or norm).
For any nonzero rational number
, express it in the form:![\[
x = p^n \frac{a}{b},
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/a/d/6/ad616e16ce53ad528ec96b1030f71608450a199d.png)
where
and 
are integers not divisible by the prime , and 
is an integer.The p-adic norm of
is defined as:![\[
|x|_p = p^{-n}.
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/6/3/0/6309b3d54077f4c658ede444a76be7c8285a63a7.png)
Additionally:
![\[
|0|_p = 0.
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/4/7/c/47c8f890397eef9d84d1b9ecd2bdeb826af58923.png)
This norm satisfies the following properties:
- Non-negativity:
and 
if and only if 
. - Multiplicativity:
. - The Strong Triangle Inequality:
.
and 
if and only if 
.
.
.This last property is stronger than the ordinary triangle inequality and gives rise to what is called an ultrametric space.
3. Construction of the p-adic Numbers
Just as the real numbers
are constructed by completing the rational numbers 
with respect to the usual absolute value, the p-adic numbers are constructed by completing using the p-adic norm.Elements of
can be represented as p-adic expansions:![\[
x = a_{-n} p^{-n} + a_{-n+1} p^{-n+1} + \dots + a_0 + a_1 p + a_2 p^2 + \dots,
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/4/a/5/4a50d691d8187e600b659cb3a3755e6dfc2d01b3.png)
where each coefficient
is an integer between 0 and 
.For example, in the 3-adic system:
![\[
\frac{5}{4} = 2 + 3 + 3^2 + 3^3 + \dots
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/7/5/d/75d6a9d37a06dea445e43e9ad7a02dd16b42b6a3.png)
4. Differences Between p-adic and Real Numbers
The p-adic numbers are fundamentally different from the real numbers in several ways:
- Topology: In , numbers get "closer" when their difference is divisible by a high power of . For example, in 5-adic numbers, 25 and 50 are closer than 25 and 30.
- Infinite Expansions: In , decimals expand infinitely to the right; in , p-adic numbers can expand infinitely to the left.
- Compactness: The unit ball
is compact, unlike the real numbers where the interval ![\( [0, 1] \)](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/a/c/6/ac62b9965e7b3a1cbaada80fd58f3252f108a2af.png)
is merely bounded.
is compact, unlike the real numbers where the interval ![\( [0, 1] \)](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/a/c/6/ac62b9965e7b3a1cbaada80fd58f3252f108a2af.png)
is merely bounded.5. Hensel’s Lemma
One of the most important tools in p-adic analysis is Hensel’s Lemma. It is the p-adic analogue of Newton’s method for finding roots of polynomials.
Theorem (Hensel’s Lemma):
Let
be a polynomial with coefficients in 
. Suppose there exists an 
such that:![\[
f(a) \equiv 0 \mod p \quad \text{and} \quad f'(a) \not\equiv 0 \mod p,
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/2/d/7/2d76706c2fa263d636d19c19d98d99c6e67b1a06.png)
then there exists a unique
-adic integer 
such that:![\[
f(\alpha) = 0 \quad \text{and} \quad \alpha \equiv a \mod p.
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/b/6/7/b6745b93733295627eac1162c5d8ea2a3be4b085.png)
Hensel's Lemma is a powerful tool for finding roots of polynomials in
.6. Applications of p-adic Analysis
P-adic analysis has profound implications in many areas of mathematics and theoretical physics:
- Number Theory: Solving Diophantine equations, the local-global principle (Hasse principle), and modular forms.
- Algebraic Geometry: P-adic cohomology theories and formal schemes.
- Cryptography: P-adic methods have been explored in advanced cryptographic algorithms.
- Theoretical Physics: P-adic strings and models in p-adic quantum physics.
7. Examples of p-adic Computations
(1) Consider the 5-adic valuation of
:Factor
, so:![\[
|75|_5 = 5^{-2} = \frac{1}{25}.
\]](http://latex.artofproblemsolving.com/d/e/7/de771c0245c532b0466b77a0a583145bc61df97a.png)
(2) Solving
using Hensel’s Lemma:Starting with
, Hensel’s Lemma lifts this to a full solution in 
.8. Generalizations and Further Topics
Beyond basic p-adic numbers, there are several generalizations:
- Adeles and Ideles: These unify real and p-adic numbers for advanced number-theoretic applications.
- P-adic Measures and Integration: Used in Iwasawa theory and p-adic zeta functions.
- P-adic Lie Groups: Generalize continuous symmetries to the p-adic setting.
9. Conclusion
P-adic analysis opens a fascinating world of mathematics where our usual notions of distance and size are redefined. This field has deep theoretical implications, especially in number theory, and continues to be a rich source of unsolved problems and new ideas.
References
- Gouvêa, F. Q. P-adic Numbers: An Introduction.
- Koblitz, N. P-adic Numbers, P-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions.
- Wikipedia: p-adic Numbers.
March 2025