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k a May Highlights and 2025 AoPS Online Class Information
jlacosta   0
May 1, 2025
May is an exciting month! National MATHCOUNTS is the second week of May in Washington D.C. and our Founder, Richard Rusczyk will be presenting a seminar, Preparing Strong Math Students for College and Careers, on May 11th.

Are you interested in working towards MATHCOUNTS and don’t know where to start? We have you covered! If you have taken Prealgebra, then you are ready for MATHCOUNTS/AMC 8 Basics. Already aiming for State or National MATHCOUNTS and harder AMC 8 problems? Then our MATHCOUNTS/AMC 8 Advanced course is for you.

Summer camps are starting next month at the Virtual Campus in math and language arts that are 2 - to 4 - weeks in duration. Spaces are still available - don’t miss your chance to have an enriching summer experience. There are middle and high school competition math camps as well as Math Beasts camps that review key topics coupled with fun explorations covering areas such as graph theory (Math Beasts Camp 6), cryptography (Math Beasts Camp 7-8), and topology (Math Beasts Camp 8-9)!

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[*]May 21st, 4:00pm PT/7:00pm ET, Mathcamp 2025 Qualifying Quiz Part 2 Math Jam, Problems 5 and 6, Canada/USA Mathcamp staff will discuss solutions to Problems 5 and 6 of the 2025 Mathcamp Qualifying Quiz![/list]
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0 replies
jlacosta
May 1, 2025
0 replies
Stanford Math Tournament (SMT) 2025
stanford-math-tournament   4
N 3 hours ago by techb
[center] :trampoline: :first: Stanford Math Tournament :first: :trampoline: [/center]

----------------------------------------------------------

[center]IMAGE[/center]

We are excited to announce that registration is now open for Stanford Math Tournament (SMT) 2025!

This year, we will welcome 800 competitors from across the nation to participate in person on Stanford’s campus. The tournament will be held April 11-12, 2025, and registration is open to all high-school students from the United States. This year, we are extending registration to high school teams (strongly preferred), established local mathematical organizations, and individuals; please refer to our website for specific policies. Whether you’re an experienced math wizard, a puzzle hunt enthusiast, or someone looking to meet new friends, SMT has something to offer everyone!

Register here today! We’ll be accepting applications until March 2, 2025.

For those unable to travel, in middle school, or not from the United States, we encourage you to instead register for SMT 2025 Online, which will be held on April 13, 2025. Registration for SMT 2025 Online will open mid-February.

For more information visit our website! Please email us at stanford.math.tournament@gmail.com with any questions or reply to this thread below. We can’t wait to meet you all in April!

4 replies
stanford-math-tournament
Feb 1, 2025
techb
3 hours ago
Goals for 2025-2026
Airbus320-214   136
N 5 hours ago by MathPerson12321
Please write down your goal/goals for competitions here for 2025-2026.
136 replies
Airbus320-214
May 11, 2025
MathPerson12321
5 hours ago
Alcumus vs books
UnbeatableJJ   5
N Today at 2:41 AM by Andyluo
If I am aiming for AIME, then JMO afterwards, is Alcumus adequate, or I still need to do the problems on AoPS books?

I got AMC 23 this year, and never took amc 10 before. If I master the alcumus of intermediate algebra (making all of the bars blue). How likely I can qualify for AIME 2026?
5 replies
UnbeatableJJ
Apr 23, 2025
Andyluo
Today at 2:41 AM
[MAIN ROUND STARTS MAY 17] OMMC Year 5
DottedCaculator   54
N Today at 12:14 AM by fuzimiao2013
Hello to all creative problem solvers,

Do you want to work on a fun, untimed team math competition with amazing questions by MOPpers and IMO & EGMO medalists? $\phantom{You lost the game.}$
Do you want to have a chance to win thousands in cash and raffle prizes (no matter your skill level)?

Check out the fifth annual iteration of the

Online Monmouth Math Competition!

Online Monmouth Math Competition, or OMMC, is a 501c3 accredited nonprofit organization managed by adults, college students, and high schoolers which aims to give talented high school and middle school students an exciting way to develop their skills in mathematics.

Our website: https://www.ommcofficial.org/
Our Discord (6000+ members): https://tinyurl.com/joinommc
Test portal: https://ommc-test-portal.vercel.app/

This is not a local competition; any student 18 or younger anywhere in the world can attend. We have changed some elements of our contest format, so read carefully and thoroughly. Join our Discord or monitor this thread for updates and test releases.

How hard is it?

We plan to raffle out a TON of prizes over all competitors regardless of performance. So just submit: a few minutes of your time will give you a great chance to win amazing prizes!

How are the problems?

You can check out our past problems and sample problems here:
https://www.ommcofficial.org/sample
https://www.ommcofficial.org/2022-documents
https://www.ommcofficial.org/2023-documents
https://www.ommcofficial.org/ommc-amc

How will the test be held?/How do I sign up?

Solo teams?

Test Policy

Timeline:
Main Round: May 17th - May 24th
Test Portal Released. The Main Round of the contest is held. The Main Round consists of 25 questions that each have a numerical answer. Teams will have the entire time interval to work on the questions. They can submit any time during the interval. Teams are free to edit their submissions before the period ends, even after they submit.

Final Round: May 26th - May 28th
The top placing teams will qualify for this invitational round (5-10 questions). The final round consists of 5-10 proof questions. Teams again will have the entire time interval to work on these questions and can submit their proofs any time during this interval. Teams are free to edit their submissions before the period ends, even after they submit.

Conclusion of Competition: Early June
Solutions will be released, winners announced, and prizes sent out to winners.

Scoring:

Prizes:

I have more questions. Whom do I ask?

We hope for your participation, and good luck!

OMMC staff

OMMC’S 2025 EVENTS ARE SPONSORED BY:

[list]
[*]Nontrivial Fellowship
[*]Citadel
[*]SPARC
[*]Jane Street
[*]And counting!
[/list]


54 replies
DottedCaculator
Apr 26, 2025
fuzimiao2013
Today at 12:14 AM
No more topics!
funny title placeholder
pikapika007   61
N May 4, 2025 by Shreyasharma
Source: USAJMO 2025/6
Let $S$ be a set of integers with the following properties:
[list]
[*] $\{ 1, 2, \dots, 2025 \} \subseteq S$.
[*] If $a, b \in S$ and $\gcd(a, b) = 1$, then $ab \in S$.
[*] If for some $s \in S$, $s + 1$ is composite, then all positive divisors of $s + 1$ are in $S$.
[/list]
Prove that $S$ contains all positive integers.
61 replies
pikapika007
Mar 21, 2025
Shreyasharma
May 4, 2025
funny title placeholder
G H J
G H BBookmark kLocked kLocked NReply
Source: USAJMO 2025/6
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llddmmtt1
425 posts
#49 • 2 Y
Y by megarnie, aliz
"1 mod 4 or 3 mod 4"
what the 1434
This post has been edited 1 time. Last edited by llddmmtt1, Mar 22, 2025, 12:39 PM
Reason: what the typo
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ReaperGod
1579 posts
#50
Y by
vincentwant wrote:
How many points would I get taken off for this:

Let 1 to p-1 in S. Let p/2<c<p be prime. Then c divided one of p-1, 2p-1, 3p-1, etc up to (c-1)p-1. It cannot be p-1 bc size. Then let c divide gp-1. Then (gp-1)/c and c are both in S, so then (this is the error) gp-1 is in S. Thus p is in S.

I missed the case where c^2 divides gp-1. However this case is fine because size gives c^2=gp-1 and c^2-1 is easy to show to be in S (consider $(c\pm1)/2$), but I didn't have time to find this in contest as I found the error in the last 10 min oops

Edit: this doesn't actually work, but just choosing another c I think guarantees that it can't happen again

That is exactly what I did. Could someone confirm that it is considered well known that there are two primes between n/2 and n for large n?
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vincentwant
1422 posts
#51
Y by
ReaperGod wrote:
vincentwant wrote:
How many points would I get taken off for this:

Let 1 to p-1 in S. Let p/2<c<p be prime. Then c divided one of p-1, 2p-1, 3p-1, etc up to (c-1)p-1. It cannot be p-1 bc size. Then let c divide gp-1. Then (gp-1)/c and c are both in S, so then (this is the error) gp-1 is in S. Thus p is in S.

I missed the case where c^2 divides gp-1. However this case is fine because size gives c^2=gp-1 and c^2-1 is easy to show to be in S (consider $(c\pm1)/2$), but I didn't have time to find this in contest as I found the error in the last 10 min oops

Edit: this doesn't actually work, but just choosing another c I think guarantees that it can't happen again

That is exactly what I did. Could someone confirm that it is considered well known that there are two primes between n/2 and n for large n?

yes (from wikipedia)
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llddmmtt1
425 posts
#52
Y by
i thought you had to say the name of a theorem if you wanted to use it, as this is not like extremely well known
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MathLuis
1530 posts
#54
Y by
This kind of qns has been getting more popular lately, kinda fun I'd say.
We prove by induction that if $\{1,2 \cdots ,n \} \in S$ then $n+1 \in S$, this is clear if $n+1$ is composite so assume that $n+1$ is prime.
Now we will prove that $2^{\ell \cdot 2^k} \pm 1, 2^{\ell \cdot 2^k}$ are all on $S$ for all positive integers $k$ and $\ell=3,5$ (because $2025$ is smol :c), base cases are given and for the inductive step just note that $\gcd(2^{\ell \cdot 2^k}-1, 2^{\ell \cdot 2^k}+1)=1$ and therefore $2^{\ell \cdot 2^{k+1}}-1 \in S$ and also then $2^{\ell \cdot 2^{k+1}} \in S$ but also note that $2^{2^{k+1}}+1 \mid 2^{\ell \cdot 2^{k+1}}+1$ so it can't be prime therefore it is also in $S$ thus claim proven.
Now clearly because $k$ can be made large enough from here we get that all powers of $2$ are on $S$, notice then as well that from here we get that $2^x+1 \in S$ for all $x$ composite and that posses one odd factor but then considering the rest of divisors of this amount by making $x$ have a lot of factors we have that all $2^x+1 \in S$ for all positive integers $x$ and using trivial induction from here. we can also get that $2^x-1 \in S$ for all positive integers $x$ and thus we also have $2^x-2 \in S$ for all positive integers $x$ using condition 1 and thus using condition 2 now here consider some large enough composite $x$ then all positive divisors of $2^x-1$ are on $S$ as well so by setting $p-1 \mid x$ for $p$ odd prime and FLT we get that all primes are on $S$ but also by taking $(p-1) p^{\ell} \mid x$ and using euler theorem we get that all odd prime powers are on $S$ as well and well this is kinda overkill since all we needed was $n+1$ prime to be on $S$ so that induction is complete as well xD, thus we are done :cool:.
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v_Enhance
6877 posts
#55 • 1 Y
Y by bachkieu
Solution from Twitch Solves ISL:

We prove by induction on $N$ that $S$ contains $\{1, \dots, N\}$ with the base cases being $N = 1, \dots, 2025$ already given.
For the inductive step, to show $N+1 \in S$:
  • If $N+1$ is composite we're already done from the third bullet.
  • Otherwise, assume $N+1 = p \ge 2025$ is an (odd) prime number. We say a number is good if the prime powers in its prime factorization are all less than $p$. Hence by the second bullet (repeatedly), good numbers are in $S$. Now our proof is split into three cases:
    1. Suppose neither $p-1$ nor $p+1$ is a power of $2$ (but both are still even). We claim that the number \[ s \coloneq p^2-1 = (p-1)(p+1) \]is good. Indeed, one of the numbers has only a single factor of $2$, and the other by hypothesis is not a power of $2$ (but still even). So the largest power of $2$ dividing $p^2-2$ is certainly less than $p$. And every other prime power divides at most one of $p-1$ and $p+1$.
      Hence $s \coloneq p^2-1$ is good. As $s+1 = p^2$, Case 1 is done.
    2. Suppose $p+1$ is a power of $2$; that is $p = 2^q-1$. Since $p > 2025$, we assume $q \ge 11$ is odd. First we contend that the number \[ s' \coloneq 2^{q+1} - 1 = \left( 2^{(q+1)/2}-1 \right) \left( 2^{(q+1)/2}+1 \right) \]is good. Indeed, this follows from the two factors being coprime and both less than $p$. Hence $s'+1 = 2^{q+1}$ is in $S$.
      Thus, we again have \[ s \coloneq p^2-1 = (p-1)(p+1) \in S \]as we did in the previous case, because the largest power of $2$ dividing $p^2-1$ will be exactly $2^{q+1}$ which is known to be in $S$. And since $s+1=p^2$, Case 2 is done.
    3. Finally suppose $p-1$ is a power of $2$; that is $p = 2^{2^e}+1$ is a Fermat prime. Then in particular, $p \equiv 2 \pmod 3$. Now observe that \[ s \coloneq 2p-1 \equiv 0 \pmod 3 \]and moreover $2p-1$ is not a power of $3$ (it would imply $2^{2^e+1} + 1 = 3^k$, which is impossible for $k \ge 3$ by Zsigmondy/Mihailescu/etc.). So $s$ is good, and since $s+1 = 2p$, Case 3 is done.
    Having finished all the cases, we conclude $p \in S$ and the induction is done.

Remark: In fact just $2025 \in S$ is sufficient as a base case; however this requires a bit more work to check. Here is how:
  • From $2025 \in S$ we get $2026 = 2 \cdot 1013$, so $2,1013 \in S$.
  • From $1013+1 = 1014 = 2 \cdot 3 \cdot 13^2$ we get $3,13 \in S$.
  • From $3+1 = 4$ we get $4 \in S$.
  • $3 \cdot 13 + 1 = 40 = 2^3 \cdot 5$ we get $5 \in S$.
  • Once $\{1,2,\dots,5\} \subseteq S$, the induction above actually works fine; that is, $N \le 6$ are sufficient as base cases for the earlier cases to finish the rest of the problem. (Case 2 works once $q \ge 3$, and Case 3 works once $e \ge 2$.)
However, $\{1,2,3,4\} \subseteq S$ is not sufficient; for example $S = \{1,2,3,4,6,12\}$ satisfies all the problem conditions.
This post has been edited 1 time. Last edited by v_Enhance, Mar 27, 2025, 10:54 PM
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Quique
31 posts
#56
Y by
v_Enhance wrote:
Remark: In fact just $2025 \in S$ is sufficient as a base case; however this requires a bit more work to check. Here is how:
  • From $2025 \in S$ we get $2026 = 2 \cdot 1013$, so $2,1013 \in S$.
  • From $1013+1 = 1014 = 2 \cdot 3 \cdot 13^2$ we get $3,13 \in S$.
  • From $3+1 = 4$ we get $4 \in S$.
  • $3 \cdot 13 + 1 = 40 = 2^3 \cdot 5$ we get $5 \in S$.
  • Once $\{1,2,\dots,5\} \subseteq S$, the induction above actually works fine; that is, $N \le 6$ are sufficient as base cases for the earlier cases to finish the rest of the problem. (Case 2 works once $q \ge 3$, and Case 3 works once $e \ge 2$.)
However, $\{1,2,3,4\} \subseteq S$ is not sufficient; for example $S = \{1,2,3,4,6,12\}$ satisfies all the problem conditions.

Nice catch. The problem was proposed with just $2025\in S$.
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Gedagedigedagedago-
4 posts
#57 • 17 Y
Y by scannose, i3435, popop614, bjump, megarnie, xTimmyG, balllightning37, zoinkers, EpicBird08, AlexWin0806, Jack_w, qwerty123456asdfgzxcvb, KnowingAnt, aidan0626, TestX01, Amkan2022, OronSH
($\{1, 2, \dots, 2025\} \subseteq S$) Gegagedigeda! ($\text{gcn}(a,b) = 1 \implies ab \in S$) Gegagedigedagedago! $s+1$ composite? WHAT! Help Me!

Like == Help

Ding!

Gegagedimethod: INuggetduction! Casework: IF $[x] \cap S = [x]$. NOITCE: $x \ge 2025$!
1. $x+1$ is NOT PRIME NUGGET! By theorem: $x+1 = nk$ WHERE: $\text{gcn}(n,k) = 1$, $n \le k < x$. NUGGET POINT 2 = SOLUTION!
2. $x+1=\mathfrak p$ IS PRIME NUGGET! Consider case:
2.Gegagedi. Three nuggets divide $\mathfrak p-1$! Notice : $\text{gcn}(\mathfrak p-2, p+1) = \text{gcn}(3, \mathfrak p+1) = 1$. Conclusion: Greatest common nugget of $(\mathfrak p-2)$ and $(\mathfrak p+1)/2$ is 1! Notice: $\mathfrak p-2, (p+1)/2 < \mathfrak p$! Conclusion nugget special: $(\mathfrak p-2)(\mathfrak p+1)/2 \in S$! Conclusion 2: $(\mathfrak p-2)(\mathfrak p+1)/2 + 1$ is NOT PRIME! Because divide by prime nugget $\mathfrak p$.
2.Gegagedi2. Three nuggets divide $\mathfrak p-2$! Consider case again:
2.Gegagedi2.1. Four nuggets divide $\mathfrak p-1$. Notice two: $\text{gcn}(2\mathfrak p+2, \mathfrak p-3) = \text{gcn}(8, \mathfrak p-3) = 2$. Gegagedi special technique: IMBALANCE VALUE! Because Four nuggets divide $\mathfrak p-1$, only two nuggets divide $\mathfrak p-3$! Conclusion: $\text{gcn}(2\mathfrak p + 2, (\mathfrak p-3)/2) = 1$. Nugget point 2 give: $(2\mathfrak p+2)/3 \cdot (\mathfrak p-3)/2 \in S$! Notice: prime nugget divide $(2\mathfrak p+2)(\mathfrak p-3)/6 + 1$!
2.Gegagedi2.2. Four nuggets divide $\mathfrak p - 3$. Then gegagedi residue theory: $12$ NUGGETS DIVIDE $\mathfrak p + 1$! So $4$ nuggets do not divide $\mathfrak p - 1$! And $\mathfrak p - 1$ and $\mathfrak p + 1$ Are not pure 2 nuggets! Imply: Let $\mathfrak p + 1 = 2^{\mathcal G}\nu$ so $\mathfrak  - 1 = 2\mu$. Then $\nu > 2$! So $2^{\mathcal G + 1} < p$! And: $\text{gcn}(\nu, \mu) = 1$! Conclusion: \[ 2^{\mathcal G + 1} \nu \mu \in S!!!!!!!!! \]Gegagedi finish: Nugget point 3 give $(p-1)(p+1) + 1$ divisors in $S$! INuggetduction max design pro!
This post has been edited 1 time. Last edited by Gedagedigedagedago-, Mar 23, 2025, 5:11 PM
Reason: Gegagemistake!
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cowstalker
295 posts
#58
Y by
Quique wrote:

Nice catch. The problem was proposed with just $2025\in S$.

yikes thank god it didnt go through lol
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BS2012
1045 posts
#60
Y by
Solved everything except fermat prime, which i had it down to proving that $2^{2^k+1}$ is in $S,$ and had the main idea for the proof of that in my mersenne prime section (in $2^{q+1}=\left(2^\frac{q+1}{2}-1\right)\left(2^\frac{q+1}{2}+1\right)$). Unfortunately, i wrote something random after getting that a fermat prime is in $S$ if $2^{2^k+1}$ is in $S.$ How many pts?
This post has been edited 2 times. Last edited by BS2012, Mar 26, 2025, 4:35 PM
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vincentwant
1422 posts
#61
Y by
vincentwant wrote:
How many points would I get taken off for this:

Let 1 to p-1 in S. Let p/2<c<p be prime. Then c divided one of p-1, 2p-1, 3p-1, etc up to (c-1)p-1. It cannot be p-1 bc size. Then let c divide gp-1. Then (gp-1)/c and c are both in S, so then (this is the error) gp-1 is in S. Thus p is in S.

I missed the case where c^2 divides gp-1. However this case is fine because size gives c^2=gp-1 and c^2-1 is easy to show to be in S (consider $(c\pm1)/2$), but I didn't have time to find this in contest as I found the error in the last 10 min oops

Edit: this doesn't actually work, but just choosing another c I think guarantees that it can't happen again

ok actually i think this does work
because if c^2 divides gp-1 then c^2 is 1 mod p and thus c is either 1 or -1 mod p. the bounds on c dictate that this is impossible.

i think i got 1 pt on this because my writeup was really badge but the solution does work i think

Edit: this is wrong, if c^2 divides gp-1 bound restrictions gives c^2=gp-1 and so c^2 is -1 mod p, not 1. Choosing another c however does work
This post has been edited 2 times. Last edited by vincentwant, Apr 23, 2025, 12:19 PM
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RaymondZhu
4006 posts
#62
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vincentwant wrote:
vincentwant wrote:
How many points would I get taken off for this:

Let 1 to p-1 in S. Let p/2<c<p be prime. Then c divided one of p-1, 2p-1, 3p-1, etc up to (c-1)p-1. It cannot be p-1 bc size. Then let c divide gp-1. Then (gp-1)/c and c are both in S, so then (this is the error) gp-1 is in S. Thus p is in S.

I missed the case where c^2 divides gp-1. However this case is fine because size gives c^2=gp-1 and c^2-1 is easy to show to be in S (consider $(c\pm1)/2$), but I didn't have time to find this in contest as I found the error in the last 10 min oops

Edit: this doesn't actually work, but just choosing another c I think guarantees that it can't happen again

ok actually i think this does work
because if c^2 divides gp-1 then c^2 is 1 mod p and thus c is either 1 or -1 mod p. the bounds on c dictate that this is impossible.

i think i got 1 pt on this because my writeup was really badge but the solution does work i think

i got 2pt on this, and my friend got 3pt bcs he pointed out that that was flaw i think
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BS2012
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#63
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BS2012 wrote:
Solved everything except fermat prime, which i had it down to proving that $2^{2^k+1}$ is in $S,$ and had the main idea for the proof of that in my mersenne prime section (in $2^{q+1}=\left(2^\frac{q+1}{2}-1\right)\left(2^\frac{q+1}{2}+1\right)$). Unfortunately, i wrote something random after getting that a fermat prime is in $S$ if $2^{2^k+1}$ is in $S.$ How many pts?

6 pts somehow
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SKeole
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v_Enhance wrote:
Solution from Twitch Solves ISL:

We prove by induction on $N$ that $S$ contains $\{1, \dots, N\}$ with the base cases being $N = 1, \dots, 2025$ already given.
For the inductive step, to show $N+1 \in S$:
  • If $N+1$ is composite we're already done from the third bullet.
  • Otherwise, assume $N+1 = p \ge 2025$ is an (odd) prime number. We say a number is good if the prime powers in its prime factorization are all less than $p$. Hence by the second bullet (repeatedly), good numbers are in $S$. Now our proof is split into three cases:
    1. Suppose neither $p-1$ nor $p+1$ is a power of $2$ (but both are still even). We claim that the number \[ s \coloneq p^2-1 = (p-1)(p+1) \]is good. Indeed, one of the numbers has only a single factor of $2$, and the other by hypothesis is not a power of $2$ (but still even). So the largest power of $2$ dividing $p^2-2$ is certainly less than $p$. And every other prime power divides at most one of $p-1$ and $p+1$.
      Hence $s \coloneq p^2-1$ is good. As $s+1 = p^2$, Case 1 is done.
    2. Suppose $p+1$ is a power of $2$; that is $p = 2^q-1$. Since $p > 2025$, we assume $q \ge 11$ is odd. First we contend that the number \[ s' \coloneq 2^{q+1} - 1 = \left( 2^{(q+1)/2}-1 \right) \left( 2^{(q+1)/2}+1 \right) \]is good. Indeed, this follows from the two factors being coprime and both less than $p$. Hence $s'+1 = 2^{q+1}$ is in $S$.
      Thus, we again have \[ s \coloneq p^2-1 = (p-1)(p+1) \in S \]as we did in the previous case, because the largest power of $2$ dividing $p^2-1$ will be exactly $2^{q+1}$ which is known to be in $S$. And since $s+1=p^2$, Case 2 is done.
    3. Finally suppose $p-1$ is a power of $2$; that is $p = 2^{2^e}+1$ is a Fermat prime. Then in particular, $p \equiv 2 \pmod 3$. Now observe that \[ s \coloneq 2p-1 \equiv 0 \pmod 3 \]and moreover $2p-1$ is not a power of $3$ (it would imply $2^{2^e+1} + 1 = 3^k$, which is impossible for $k \ge 3$ by Zsigmondy/Mihailescu/etc.). So $s$ is good, and since $s+1 = 2p$, Case 3 is done.
    Having finished all the cases, we conclude $p \in S$ and the induction is done.

Remark: In fact just $2025 \in S$ is sufficient as a base case; however this requires a bit more work to check. Here is how:
  • From $2025 \in S$ we get $2026 = 2 \cdot 1013$, so $2,1013 \in S$.
  • From $1013+1 = 1014 = 2 \cdot 3 \cdot 13^2$ we get $3,13 \in S$.
  • From $3+1 = 4$ we get $4 \in S$.
  • $3 \cdot 13 + 1 = 40 = 2^3 \cdot 5$ we get $5 \in S$.
  • Once $\{1,2,\dots,5\} \subseteq S$, the induction above actually works fine; that is, $N \le 6$ are sufficient as base cases for the earlier cases to finish the rest of the problem. (Case 2 works once $q \ge 3$, and Case 3 works once $e \ge 2$.)
However, $\{1,2,3,4\} \subseteq S$ is not sufficient; for example $S = \{1,2,3,4,6,12\}$ satisfies all the problem conditions.

For case 2, why can't we reason as follows:
Our aim is to show $2^{q+1}\in S$. By the inductive hypothesis, we can see that both $2^{q-1}-1$ and $2^{q-1}+1$ are in $S$; furthermore, they both must be relatively prime to each other. Thus, by rule 2, $\left(2^{q-1}-1\right) \cdot \left(2^{q-1}+1\right) = 2^{2q-2}-1 \in S$. Now, by rule three, we can see that, because $2^{2q-2}-1 \in S$ and $2^{2q-2}-1 + 1$ is composite, all positive divisors of $2^{2q-2}$ must be in $S$, including $2^{q+1}$.
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Shreyasharma
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Let the primes be $p_1 < p_2 < \dots$ in ascending order. Say the set of maximal primes powers dividing elements of $S$ is $\{p_1^{e_1}, p_2^{e_2}, \dots, p_k^{e_k}\}$.

First we claim that all powers of $2$ lie in $S$. The key idea is to proceed by induction -- if $\{1, 2, \dots, 2^k\} \in S$, then $2^{k + 1}$ lies in $S$. To see this note that $2^{2k} = (2^{2k - 2} - 1) + 1  = (2^{k - 1} - 1)(2^{k - 1} + 1) + 1$ and all its divisors lie in $S$, proving the claim.

Then consider $\min(p_1^{e_1 + 1}, p_2^{e_2 + 1}, \dots, p_k^{e_k + 1}, p_{k + 1})$.
  • If the minimum is $p_j^{e_j + 1}$ for some $1 \leq j \leq k$, then we easily find that $p_j^{e_j + 1}$ must lie in $S$ as any prime power $q^{\nu_q\left(p_k^{e_j + 1} - 1\right)}$ dividing $p_j^{e_j + 1} - 1$ lies in $S$ by assumption.
  • Otherwise, assume that the minimum is $p_{k + 1}$, and consider $(p_{k + 1} - 1)(p_{k + 1} + 1)$. Any odd prime power dividing $p_{k + 1} - 1$ clearly lies in $S$ by assumption. There is a similar argument for $p_{k + 1} + 1$. Moreover $2^{\nu_2(p_{k + 1}^2 - 1)}$ lies in $S$ by our first argument. Thus $(p_{k + 1}^2 - 1) + 1$ lies in $S$, as do its divisors, namely $p_{k + 1}$.
Thus we can obtain all prime powers, and from the second operation we can thus obtain all positive integers. Thus each positive integer lies in $S$ as desired.
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