so have a random collection of problems I've solved over the past

months, where
.
CMIMC 2024 Algebra 9 (Robert Trosten). Let

be the non-negative rational numbers,

such that
, 
for
, and

Define a sequence

of non-negative integers recursively via

for every
. Find
SolutionThis is a problem about continued fractions in disguise. Let
![\[
[x_0;x_1,x_2,\ldots, x_n] := x_0 + \cfrac{1}{x_1 + \cfrac{1}{x_2 + \cfrac{1}{\cdots + \cfrac{1}{x_n}}}}
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/0/7/b/07b589ccfcbfca216daa9fe0288a4270ac9d07f3.png)
for any real numbers
.
We first make two claims about the behavior of
.
Lemma 1 (Behavior on simple continued fractions). If
![$q\sim [a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots, a_n]$](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/9/d/a/9dad8b74b7b2e832dc4267954207326c07981fff.png)
is the simple continued fraction representation of a rational number
, then
Proof. Induction. The base case holds by inspection, and for the inductive step, remark that
Lemma 2 (Behavior on negative inputs). If
, where each
, then
Proof. Remark that
![\[
a - \frac 1q = a - 1 + \frac{q-1}q = a - 1 + \cfrac{1}{\frac{q}{q-1}} = a - 1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{q-1}},
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/a/f/7/af75e83c81abb9ea00551a8dc1c0681de485c4e1.png)
so
. That is, the minus sign serves to subtract

from the overall sum when

is applied. Another round of induction finishes.
We now proceed with the original problem. Define

for each positive integer
; compute

and
. The characteristic polynomial of the recurrence

is
, which has roots

and

satisfying

and
. Thus

has characteristic polynomial with roots

and
, which can be computed by any method of choice to be
.
This means
![\[
Q_n = 34 Q_{n-1} - Q_{n-2}\text{ for every }n\geq 2,
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/f/4/c/f4cd879461ea3c10aac7be5b061c5528dfcdb1ea.png)
or
![\[
\frac{Q_{n}}{Q_{n-1}} = 34 - \frac{Q_{n-2}}{Q_{n-1}}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/5/f/0/5f0e4fd6ca5f27f004feb90362108439181c9771.png)
It follows from induction and

that
![\[
\frac{Q_6}{Q_5} = [34;-34,-34,-34,-34],
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/5/c/4/5c48d00b817766ca497d36c6b7ff1a95524a044a.png)
so
.
CMIMC 2024 Algebra 10 (Connor Gordon). There exists a unique pair of polynomials

such that

Compute
.
SolutionBy comparing degrees, deduce that

and

are both quadratics. Furthermore, the leading coefficients of

and

are either

or
.
Let

and

be the roots of
, and define

and

analogously. Observe that
![\[
P(Q(x)) = \pm(Q(x) - r_P)(Q(x) - r_Q)
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/c/a/b/cab19121e6f91dca559585ac4d6ff0d8716eaeb4.png)
is the product of two factors, each of whose sum of roots is
. Comparing the sum of the roots of both sides in the first equation yields the relation
. Analogous reasoning with the second equation yields the relation
. Solving yields

and
. That is,
![\[
P(x) = \pm(x^2 - 4x + b)\quad\text{and}\quad Q(x) = \pm(x^2 - 5x + d)
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/8/a/8/8a8fa51cad7e1da4240c6b081cf72d45847347c8.png)
for some independent choices of signs.
To compute

and
, observe that
, so
. It follows that
![\[
P(0)(0^2 - 6\cdot 0 + 7) = P(5)(5^2 - 6\cdot 5 + 7).
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/e/0/1/e014ecb505e45384d0d7eb2d0f28d156d6897464.png)
Regardless of the leading coefficient of
, this equation simplifies to
, or
. Analogously,
, so

and
![\[
Q(0)(0^2 - 3\cdot 0 - 2) = Q(4)(4^2 - 3\cdot 4 - 2).
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/9/e/b/9eb73713432fb448236f791d9fd2e0d130cf467a.png)
Regardless of the leading coefficient of
, this equation simplifies to
, or
.
The above analysis implies

and
. To determine the exact signs, note
, so
, which can only occur if
. Analogously,
, so
, which can only occur if
.
Finally, compute
![\[
P(10) + Q(-10) = (10^2 - 4\cdot 10 + 2) - [(-10)^2 - 5\cdot(-10) + 2] = \boxed{-90}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/1/a/1/1a1dc6dd3e0275664b5c859e27c698d22a5ef159.png)
Romania District Olympiad 2024 Grade 12 Problem 4. Let

be a differentiable function, with a continous derivative. Given that

and

for every

prove that
![\[\frac{1}{n+1}\int_0^af(t)^{2n+1}\mathrm{d}t\leqslant\left(\int_0^af(t)^n\mathrm{d}t\right)^2,\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/5/f/1/5f19be19c27318882cecb0e6e013cf3e2678f0a9.png)
for any positive integer

and real number
SolutionWe'll improve the bound by a factor of
.
First remark that

because

for all
.
Let

be arbitrary. Starting with the bound
, integrating both sides from

to

yields
![\[ \frac{f(u)^{n+1}}{n+1} \leq \int_0^u f(t)^n\,dt. \]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/c/0/f/c0fc7b01fc565b60f65e589469f820644a2e498b.png)
Multiplying both sides by

gives
![\[ \frac{f(u)^{2n+1}}{n+1} \leq f(u)^n\int_0^u f(t)^n\,dt. \]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/0/6/7/06734e97a43a4f80b46bf69bd916b6b781bec90f.png)
But, by FTC Part 1, the left hand side is the derivative of

evaluated at
, while the right hand side is the derivative of

evaluated at
. Integrating both sides and evaluating at

gives the desired inequality improved by a factor of
.
Equality holds when
, which works when plugged in:
![\[ \frac{1}{n+1}\int_0^a t^{2n+1}\,dt = \frac12 a^{2(n+1)} = \frac12\left(a^{n+1}\right)^2 = \frac12\left(\int_0^a t^n\,dt\right)^2. \]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/e/8/6/e866ec7cda141a8642327b410e286868417581ec.png)
OTIS Mock AIME Problem 15 (Wilbert Chu). A parabola in the Cartesian plane is tangent to the
-axis at

and to the
-axis at
. Find the sum of the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola.
SolutionLet

and

be the tangency points of the parabola with the

and

axes, respectively, let

be the origin, and let

and

be the focus and vertex, respectively, of the parabola. Furthermore, let

and

be the projections of

and
, respectively, onto the directrix of the parabola. We make the following series of claims about the configuration.
Claim. The following facts are true.
- The directrix
of the parabola passes through
.
- Point
lies on
, and
is the foot of the altitude from
to
.
- Points
,
, and
are collinear, as are
,
, and
. In particular,
![\[
\frac{QV}{VX} = \frac{YV}{VP} = \frac{FQ}{FP}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/7/4/6/746a900e59384cbae52829495a7ac4279c7072d3.png)
Proof. This is a combination of several known facts, but in the interest of completeness we prove this only assuming the reflection property for parabolas.
Observe that

is the perpendicular bisector of
, and analogously

is the perpendicular bisector of
. It follows that

is the circumcenter of
. Because
, it follows that

too, and that

lies on
. This proves part 1.
For part 2, remark that

is the reflection of

about line
, so
. Analogously,
. This proves part 2.
Finally, for part 3, let

and
. Denote by

the foot of the perpendicular from

to
; remark that

is the midpoint of
. Remark that the length

is a weighted average of the lengths

and
; more specifically,
![\[
FT = \frac{x}{x+y}\cdot QY + \frac{y}{x+y}\cdot PX = \frac{2xy}{x+y}.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/7/9/d/79d1665171b6c7d98a929090df64d0be62215a3f.png)
Thus
. It follows by similarity ratios that

and
, proving all parts of part 3.
From here, we may finish. Because

has coordinates

and

has coordinates
, the point

has coordinates
. It follows that

has coordinates
, so
![\[
V = \frac{9}{10}X + \frac{1}{10}Q = \left(\frac{81}{100},\frac{3}{100}\right).
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/d/b/3/db3ada37e0910a1a2bea15862728c18393d2c572.png)
Hence the sum of the coordinates is
.
OMMC PoTM March 2022 (Evan Chang). Define acute triangle

with circumcircle

Let

be the midpoint of minor arc

in

and let

be the reflection of

over

If the circle with diameter

is tangent to the external angle bisector of

at

show
SolutionLet

be the midpoint of

and

the intersection point of

and
. Further, let

be the circle with diameter
. We proceed with two claims.
Claim 1. Lines

and

are perpendicular.
Proof. Let

be the intersection point of

and
. From the perspective of
, 
is the external angle bisector and

is the internal angle bisector, ergo
. But this means

lies on the polar of

with respect to
, ergo
.
Claim 2. Segments

and

have the same length.
Proof. By Power of a Point,
![\[
TA\cdot TQ = TB\cdot TC = TP^2.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/0/8/5/085cadc1afe96cb4b9672feefdc39d6bc6999276.png)
Additionally, by Claim 1, triangles

and

are similar, so
. It follows that
.
From here, we see that
, so
. Equivalently,
. 
BAMO 2010 Problem 4. Acute triangle

has
. Point

lies in the interior of triangle

so that

and
. Point

is the reflection of

across line
, and point

is the reflection of

across line
. Prove that lines

and

are perpendicular.
SolutionLet

be the intersection point of

and
. Compute

from an angle chase, hence

is cyclic. Because

is the circumcenter of
, it follows that

is the circumcenter of

as well. Rephrasing the problem from the perpsective of
, we thus get the following equivalent statement.
Equivalent Problem. Let

be a triangle with circumcenter

and
-excenter
. Points

and

lie on rays

and

such that
. Prove that
.
There are several ways to prove this. One way to do so is to let

be the circumcircle of

and observe the computations

and

The claim follows by the Perpendicularity Lemma.
Another way is to observe that
, where

and

are the feet of the
- and
- internal angle bisectors of
, and then
nuke it.
Naoki Sato. In triangle
, sides

and

are extended to

and
, respectively, so that

is parallel to

and tangent to the
-excircle. Construct the circle that passes through

and
, and is tangent to the
-excircle. Prove that this circle is also tangent to the incircle of triangle
.
Solution![[asy]
defaultpen(fontsize(10pt));
real area(pair A, pair B, pair C) {
return(abs((xpart(A)*ypart(B) + xpart(B)*ypart(C) + xpart(C)*ypart(A) - ypart(A)*xpart(B) - ypart(B)*xpart(C) - ypart(C)*xpart(A)))/2);
};
pair excentre(pair A, pair B, pair C) {
return((-abs(B - C)*A + abs(C - A)*B + abs(A - B)*C)/(-abs(B - C) + abs(C - A) + abs(A - B)));
};
real exradius(pair A, pair B, pair C) {
return(2*area(A,B,C)/(-abs(B - C) + abs(C - A) + abs(A - B)));
};
path excircle(pair A, pair B, pair C) {
return(Circle(excentre(A,B,C),exradius(A,B,C)));
};
unitsize (0.3 cm);
pair A, B, C, D, E, I, Ia, U, V, P, Q, R, S, T;
A = (0,0);
B = (-1,-4);
C = (5,-4);
D = interp(A,B,exradius(A,B,C)/inradius(A,B,C));
E = interp(A,C,exradius(A,B,C)/inradius(A,B,C));
I = incenter(A,B,C); Ia = excentre(A,B,C);
T = foot(I, B,C); U = foot(I,A,B); V = foot(I,A,C); S = foot(Ia, B, C); P = foot(Ia,A,D); Q = foot(Ia,A,E); R = foot(Ia,D,E);
draw(incircle(A,B,C),red);
draw(excircle(A,B,C),red);
draw(A--D--E--cycle);
draw(B--C);
label("$A$", A, N);
label("$B$", B, NW);
label("$C$", C, NE);
label("$D$", D, SW);
label("$E$", E, SE);
label("$U$",U,NW);
label("$V$",V,NE);
label("$S$",S,dir(270));
label("$T$",T, N);
label("$P$",P,NW);
label("$Q$",Q,NE);
label("$R$",R,dir(270));
[/asy]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/0/d/c/0dcf24d5798ec2381580050753191675c75b8e61.png)
Assume without loss (as in the diagram above) that
. Let

be the incircle of

and

its
-excircle. Let

and

be the tangency points of

and
, respectively, with
, and let
,
, and

be the tangency points of

with
,
, and
, also respectively. Using standard triangle notation, write
,
, and
. Therefore
![\begin{align*}
BC\cdot TS + BT\cdot EV &= a(b-c) + (s-b)\left[a + \frac{(s-c)s}{s-a}\right]\\
&= a(b-c+s-b) + \frac{s(s-b)(s-c)}{s-a}\\
&= a(s-c) + (s-c)\cdot\frac{s(s-b)}{s-a} = CT\cdot DU.
\end{align*}](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/6/3/9/639556b1c44b845439b970df20e83432a1d76479.png)
Scaling up by a factor of

yields the equivalent equality
![\[
DE\cdot TS + DR\cdot EV = ER\cdot DU.
\]](//latex.artofproblemsolving.com/f/e/5/fe521d06e1828d35816824f80267aff0f212f309.png)
It follows by the converse to Casey's Theorem that there exists a circle passing through the point circles

and

which is internally tangent to

and externally tangent to
. This is precisely the blue circle in the problem statement.

This post has been edited 2 times. Last edited by djmathman, Jul 19, 2024, 6:19 PM